CATATAN BIO : MUTASI

Mutasi : Perubahan sifat individu dikarenakan faktor internal dan eksternal
Faktor Internal : keturunan /gen
Faktor Eksternal : akibat penyinaran (sinar X, UV) yang dapat menghancurkan struktur kromosom

Mutasi dapat diturunkan, selama tidak dapat diturunkan bukan mutasi namanya.
perubahan struktur gen -> mutasi gen
perubahan struktur kromosom -> mutasi kromosom

Syarat terjadinya mutasi:
1. adanya perubahan DNA/ materi genetik
2. perubahannya itu bersifat dapat/tidak dapat diperbaiki/disembuhkan
3. hasil perubahan itu diwariskan secara gen pada keturunannya

Mutasi mempengaruhi DNA dan kromosom

o) DNA dipengaruhi saat sintesis DNA, saat tersebut faktor mutagenik (faktor yang menyebabkan mutasi gen) mempengaruhi pemasangan basa nukleotida sehingga tidak dapat berpasangan dengan nukleotida yang seharusnya.
o) Kromosom dipengaruhi oleh mutagen pada saat pemaketan DNA dalam kromosom (profase), pemisahan kromatid, penarikan kromosom oleh benang spindel, dan sintesis dinding sel setelah anafase.

penyebab mutasi = mutagen
makhluk hidup yang mengalami mutasi = mutan

o) Mutasi gametik-> mutasi pada sel gamet
  - bersifat diwariskan kepada keturunannya
o) Mutasi somatik-> mutasi pada sel soma ( berupa zigot, embrio, atau sel dewasa)
  - bersifat tidak dapat diwariskan
  - mutasi somatik pada orang dewasa = kanker

*) Tumor dan kanker merupakan mutasi sel. Yang dimana tumor melakukan pembelahan sel lebih lambat dibanding kanker, oleh karena itu kalo udah namanya kanker akan berkembang cepat dan sangat berbahaya.

o) Mutasi gen -> perubahan yang terjadi pada nukleotida DNA yang membawa pesan suatu gen tertentu.
  - Mutasi gen dasarnya merupakan mutasi titik
  - Mutasi titik -> perubahan kimiawi satu atau beberapa pasangan basa dalam satu gen tunggal.

#Substitusi pasangan basa -> penggantian satu nukleotida dan pasangannya dan rantai DNA komplementer dengan pasangan nukleotida lain.
  - Tipe transisi : substitusi satu purin oleh purin lain dan satu pirimidin oleh pirimidin lain.
  - Tipe transversi : substitusi satu purin oleh pirimidin dan satu pirimidin oleh purin.

Insersi : merupakan penambahan satu atau lebih pasangan nukleotida pada suatu gen.
Delesi : merupakan pengurangan satu atau lebih pasangan nukleotida pada suatu gen.

Perubahan susunan Kromosom dapat disebabkan oleh delesi, duplikasi, inversi, dan translokasi.
 - Delesi : terjadi ketika sebuah fragmen kromosom patah dan hilang saat pembelahan sel.
 - Duplikasi : fragmen patahan yang dapat berikatan dengan kromosom homolog
 - Inversi : fragmen yang dapat melekat kembali pada kromosom asal, namun letaknya terbalik.
 - Translokasi : fragmen patahan yang bergabung dengan suatu kromosom non homolog dan menyebabkan penyusunan ulang.

Bersambung . . .

PASSIVE SENTENCES

Rules to Remember
When rewriting active sentences in passive sentence, note the following:
¢the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
¢the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
¢the subject of the active sentence becomes by Agent in the passive sentence (or is dropped)
¢Only active sentence containing object which can be changed into passive form
¢The two forms should have the same tenses

Type of Passive
¢Awkward Passive:  My bicycle was repainted by John.
¢Deliberate Passive:  My bicycle was repainted.  (The performer is not mentioned and the emphasis is on the bicycle.)

A sentence is written in active sentence when the subject of the sentence performs the action in the sentence.
[Subject] + [To be] + [Ving] + [Object]
                A sentence is written in passive sentence when the subject of the sentence has an action done to it by someone or something else.
[Object] + [To be] + [Verb3] + [by Subject] 


FORMULA OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE SENTENCES IN PRESENT TENSE
Simple Present Tense
Active      : S + V1 (s/es) + O , comp.
Passive    : O + To Be (am, is, are) + V3 + by S + comp.
Present Continuous Tenses
Active     : S + To Be + V.ing+ O+ comp.
Passive   : O + To Be (am, is, are) + Being + V3 + by S + comp.
Present Perfect Tense
Active    : S + has/have + V3 + O, comp.
Passive  : O + has/have + been + V3 + by S + comp.
Present  Perfect Continuous  Tense
Active   : S + has/have + been + V.ing + O+ comp.
Passive : O + has/have+ been + being + V3 + by S + comp 
 FORMULA OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE SENTENCES IN PAST TENSE
Simple Past Tense
Active   : S + V2 + O, comp.
Passive : O + To Be (was, were) + V3 + by S + comp.
Past Continous Tense
Active    : S + To Be(was, were) + Ving + O, comp.
Passive  : O+ To Be (was, were) + being + V3 + by S + comp.
Past Perfect Tense
Active    : S + HAD + V3 + O, comp.
Passive  :O + Had + been + V3 + by S + comp.
Past Perfect Continous Tense
Active     : S + had been+ving + O, comp.
Passive   : O+ had+been +being + V3 + by S + comp.
FORMULA OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE SENTENCE IN FUTURE TENSE
Simple Future Tense
Active   :  S + WILL + V1 + O, comp.
Passive :  O+ WILL BE + V3 + by S + comp.
Future Continous Tense
Active   : S + WILL BE+ V1 + ING + O, comp.
Passive : O + WILL BE + BEING + V3 + by S + comp.
Future Perfect Tense
Active    : S + WILL HAVE+V3 + O, comp.
Passive  : O + WILL HAVE + BEEN + V3 + by S + comp.
Future Perfect Continous
Active     : S +WILL HAVE BEEN+VING + O, comp.
Passive   : O + WILL HAVE + BEEN + BEING + V3 + by S + comp
FORMULA OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE SENTENCES IN PAST FUTURE TENSE
Past Future Tense
Active    : S +WOULD + VERB 1 + O+ comp.
Passive  : O + WOULD BE+ V3 + by S + comp.
Past Future Continuous Tense
Active     : S +WOULD BE+V.ING + O, comp.
Passive   : O + WOULD BE + BEING + V3 + by S + comp.
Past Future Perfect Tense
Active     : S +WOULD HAVE + V3 + O, comp.
Passive   : O+ WOULD HAVE + BEEN + V3 + by S + comp.
Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Active    : S +WOULD HAVE +BEEN+V.ING + O+ comp.
Passive  : O + WILL HAVE + BEEN + BEING + V3 + by S + comp.

MODALS
Active   : S +MODALS + V1+ O, comp.
Passive : O + MODALS BE+ V3 + by S + comp.

Direct and Indirect Speech

Direct Speech / Quoted Speech

Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech)

Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.

For example:

She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations." Or "Today's lesson is on presentations," she said.

Indirect Speech / Reported Speech

Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word.

When reporting speech the tense usually changes.This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.

or example:

Direct speech	Indirect speech
"I'm going to the cinema", he said.	He said he was going to the cinema.

Tense change

As a rule when you report something someone has said you go back a tense (the tense on the left changes to the tense on the right):

Direct speech		Indirect speech
Present simple  She said, "It's cold."	›	Past simple  She said it was cold.
Present continuous  She said, "I'm teaching English online."	›	Past continuous  She said she was teaching English online.
Present perfect simple  She said, "I've been on the web since 1999."	›	Past perfect simple She said she had been on the web since 1999.
Present perfect continuous  She said, "I've been teaching English for seven years."	›	Past perfect continuous  She said she had been teaching English for seven years.
Past simple  She said, "I taught online yesterday."	›	Past perfect  She said she had taught online yesterday.
Past continuous  She said, "I was teaching earlier."	›	Past perfect continuous  She said she had been teaching earlier.
Past perfect  She said, "The lesson had already started when he arrived."	›	Past perfect  NO CHANGE - She said the lesson had already started when he arrived.
Past perfect continuous She said, "I'd already been teaching for five minutes."	›	Past perfect continuous  NO CHANGE - She said she'd already been teaching for five minutes.

Modal verb forms also sometimes change:

Direct speech		Indirect speech
will  She said, "I'll teach English online tomorrow."	›	would She said she would teach English online tomorrow.
can  She said, "I can teach English online."	›	could She said she could teach English online.
must  She said, "I must have a computer to teach English online."	›	had to  She said she had to have a computer to teach English online.
shall  She said, "What shall we learn today?"	›	should She asked what we should learn today.
may  She said, "May I open a new browser?"	›	might She asked if she might open a new browser.

Note - There is no change to; could, would, should, might and ought to.

Direct speech	Indirect speech
"I might go to the cinema", he said.	He said he might go to the cinema.

You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that something is still true i.e. my name has always been and will always be Lynne so:-

Direct speech	Indirect speech
"My name is Lynne", she said.	She said her name was Lynne. or She said her name is Lynne.

You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future event.

Direct speech (exact quote)	Indirect speech (not exact)
"Next week's lesson is on reported speech ", she said.	She said next week's lesson is on reported speech.

Time change

If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it to fit in with the time of reporting.

For example we need to change words like here and yesterday if they have different meanings at the time and place of reporting.

Today	+ 24 hours - Indirect speech
"Today's lesson is on presentations."	She said yesterday's lesson was on presentations.

Expressions of time if reported on a different day
this (evening)	›	that (evening)
today	›	yesterday ...
these (days)	›	those (days)
now	›	then
(a week) ago	›	(a week) before
last weekend	›	the weekend before last / the previous weekend
here	›	there
next (week)	›	the following (week)
tomorrow	›	the next/following day

In addition if you report something that someone said in a different place to where you heard it you must change the place (here) to the place (there).

For example:-

At work	At home
"How long have you worked here?"	She asked me how long I'd worked there.

Pronoun change

In reported speech, the pronoun often changes.

For example:

Me	You
"I teach English online."	She said she teaches English online.

Reporting Verbs

Said, told and asked are the most common verbs used in indirect speech.

We use asked to report questions:-

For example: I asked Lynne what time the lesson started.

We use told with an object.

For example: Lynne told me she felt tired.

!Note - Here me is the object.

We usually use said without an object.

For example: Lynne said she was going to teach online.

If said is used with an object we must include to ;

For example: Lynne said to me that she'd never been to China.

Note - We usually use told.

For example: Lynne told me that she'd never been to China.

There are many other verbs we can use apart from said, told and asked.

These include:-

accused, admitted, advised, alleged, agreed, apologised, begged, boasted, complained, denied, explained, implied, invited, offered, ordered, promised, replied, suggested and thought.

Using them properly can make what you say much more interesting and informative.

For example:

He asked me to come to the party:-

He invited me to the party.

He begged me to come to the party.

He ordered me to come to the party.

He advised me to come to the party.

He suggested I should come to the party.

Use of 'That' in reported speech

In reported speech, the word that is often used.

For example: He told me that he lived in Greenwich.

However, that is optional.

For example: He told me he lived in Greenwich.

Note - That is never used in questions, instead we often use if.

For example: He asked me if I would come to the party.

Narrative Text

Generic Structure

Narrative Text adalah salah satu jenis teks (genre) yang biasa digunakan untuk menulis dongeng atau cerita maupun kejadian diwaktu lampau yang mengandung permasalahan (complication), yang mempunyai langkah-langkah retorika (generic structure) yang terdiri dari: orientation, complication, resolution dan re-orientation jika ada (optional).

The Generic Structure of Narrative Text

Orientation: (Beginning or introduction)	Introduces main characters, setting and time The opening paragraph introduces characters / participants of the story and sets the scene (it answers the questions who, when, what and where)
Complication: (Middle)	The problem happens among the characters It is about the problems which involve the main characters in the story developed
Resolution: (Ending)	The problem is dissolved It is about how the problems in the story are solved (better or worse). Here, the main characters find ways to solve the problems.

The Social Function of Narrative Texts

The purpose is to entertain, create, stimulate emotions, motivate, give and teach readers.
A narrative text usually has a moral value.

A narrative text may include folktales, myths, legends, etc.

Example:

BANYUWANGI

Orientation	Once upon a time, there was a king reigned in East Javanamed Sindureja. He had a prime minister named Sidapaksa. Sidapaksa had a very beautiful wife. Sidapaksa loved his wife deeply. They lived in complete happiness. However, Sidapaksa’s mother didn’t like her daughter in law. Each day she tried to think a way to separate Sidapaksa from his wife.
Complication	One day, King Sindureja asked Sidapaksa to search for a bud of a magic flower on Mount Ijen. It was a long journey. The assignment from the king was so important and urgent. Sidapaksa had to leave his pregnant wife. Not long afterwards, a son was born. The baby’s birth gave much happiness to the young mother. However, one day, while young mother was bathing, her evil mother–in-law threw the baby into the river. Knowing that her baby had disappeared, the young mother was very sad. She could neither eat nor sleep. She became very ill. Two years passed and Sidapaksa returned from his journey. He succeeded in doing his duty. Just as he was about to enter his house, her mother told him that his wife had thrown their baby into the river. Sidapaksa believed her mother’s story. He was too angry to use his common sense. He drew his keris and approached her wife who was lying weak on her bed. “Ah, Wicked woman. Tell me why you threw our new-born child into the river. Tell me!” he said in a rough and angry voice. “Oh my dearest husband, I am innocent. I love you, and our baby. I didn’t kill our child. If you don’t believe me, carry me to the river. I will prove that I didn’t do it” replied his wife calmly. Sidapaksa took her wife to the edge of the river. Suddenly, his wife leaped up and threw herself into the river. “Oh my God! How will I know who killed my child?” moaned Sidupaksa.
Resolution	Then he looked down the water. Suddenly, two pure white flower buds appeared, one longer and taller than the other. A sweet fragrance came from them. “Sidapaksa, come and have a look here! Beside me is our child. He himself will tell you who drowned him,” the taller one spoke. “Father, my mother is innocent. Grandmother threw me into the river. Now I am happy because my beloved mother has come with me,” The smaller one spoke. Then, the two flowers vanished into the water. They left their fragrance behind. Since then, people call the city on its banks of the riverBanyuwangi. Banyu means water and wangi means fragrant.

Grammar

Ciri kebahasaan (lexica grammatical) dalam teks naratif di antaranya yaitu:

• Menggunakan Past Tense namun dapat pula dengan present tense.
• Nouns phrases sebagai subject maupun object.
• Content verbs bentuk lampau (past verbs) seperti, reigned, ordered, cursed, turned, married, dsb.
• Adjectives yang menerangkan keadaan kata benda di baliknya dan membentuk noun phrases, misalnya, long black hair, two red apples, dsb.
• Time sequence conjunctions untuk mengurutkan kejadian-kejadian, misalnya then, before that, after that, soon, when, finally, first, dsb.
• Time expressions (ungkapan waktu) seperti once upon a time, long ago, oneday, dsb.

The Simple Past Tense

The Simple Past Tense is used to talk an action that happened in the past. It is used to tell a story.

The Simple Past Tense Pattern :

Subject + to be (was/were)

Subject + verb past

To show past events you can use some adverbs of time, such as Yesterday,Last week/days…….month…...year, Two months ago, Five years …., A week ……, This morning, etc

Examples:

• Ratih was here yesterday.
• They were my classmates in elementary school.
• Lina ate pizza a week ago
• I did this homework this morning

Vocabulary

Here are some verbs taken from the text:

Verb base	Verb Past	Verb base	Verb Past
Believe Pass Give Become Ask Love Reign Have Come vanish	Believed Passed gave Became Asked Loved Reigned Had Came Vanished	Throw Return Tell Wick Say Take Leap Kill Look leave	Threw Returned Told Wicked Said Took Leaped Killed Looked Left

Note:

Become = menjadi
Reign = berkuasa
Vanish = lenyap
Wick = jahat

Leap = melompat

Noun Phrases

Noun Phrases are phrases that function in the same way as nouns, (subjects, direct objects or indirect objects)

The noun phrases in table 1 consist of adjective + noun, meanwhile noun phrases in table 2 consist of noun + noun

Adjective + Noun	Noun + Noun
complex form medical facility diagnostic procedures primary hospitals tertiary instructions modern technology acute care restricted group fast food	team effort patient’s welfare hospital personnel’s specialty hospitals patient population rehabilitation department entrance door cash register order number